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The oceans are the largest entity on Earth’s surface. All that blue, however, may be dwarfed by an immense reservoir of hydrogen concealed in the planet’s heart. Experiments indicate that enough hydrogen to form dozens of oceans of water may have been entombed in Earth’s core during its formation, researchers report February 10 in Nature Communications. Those chthonic reserves may influence processes on the planet’s surface.  Hydrogen does not exist as liquid water in the core. However, as it slowly moves upward into the mantle, it can react with oxygen to form water, said geodynamicist Motohiko Murakami of ETH Zurich. Oxygen is one of the most abundant elements in mantle minerals, making such reactions possible. Previous estimates of hydrogen in the core varied widely and relied on indirect methods. Scientists had measured how much iron expands when hydrogen is added to it to estimate hydrogen content. In the new study, Murakami and his team used a more direct experimental technique. They created artificial samples resembling early core material by enclosing small pieces of iron in hydrogen-rich glass. The samples were then compressed between two diamonds in a high-pressure device and heated with a laser to temperatures reaching 4,826 degrees Celsius. Under these extreme conditions, the materials melted into iron droplets containing silicon, hydrogen and oxygen. Scientists believe Earth’s early core formed from similar molten blobs when the young planet was largely covered by a magma ocean. Elon Musk’s SpaceX to build self-sustaining Moon city After rapidly cooling the samples, the team used advanced imaging tools to examine how the elements were distributed. They discovered tiny solid structures within the iron that contained both silicon and hydrogen in equal atomic proportions. This one-to-one ratio is important because earlier studies had indicated that Earth’s core contains between 2 and 10 percent silicon by weight. Using their findings, the researchers estimate that hydrogen makes up about 0.07 to 0.36 percent of the core’s total weight. That amount would be equivalent to roughly nine to 45 oceans of water. Murakami said some of this hydrogen has likely migrated into the mantle over time, where it formed water. The presence of water in the mantle can lower the melting point of rocks, making it easier for magma to form and potentially driving volcanic activity at the surface. #With inputs from Science News

Inside a highly secured factory near Paris, engineers are making final preparations on a massive silver engine. In a few days, a similar engine will power the maiden flight of Ariane 64, the strongest version of Europe’s Ariane 6 rocket, equipped with four boosters for the first time. The Ariane 64 rocket is set to lift off on Thursday from the European spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana. Its mission is to place 32 satellites into orbit for Amazon Leo’s broadband internet network. As Europe’s flagship space launcher, Ariane 64 enters a tough global race dominated by heavyweights such as Elon Musk’s SpaceX. At ArianeGroup’s Vernon facility, teams design and test engines, while the rocket’s main stage is built and assembled at another plant in Les Mureaux, west of Paris. Associated Press reporters were given rare access to these tightly guarded sites, where highly skilled teams turn space ambitions into daily work. “It’s a special launch  something new for us on Ariane 6,” ArianeGroup Chief Technical Officer Hervé Gilibert said. He explained that this flight introduces the four-booster setup, making the rocket almost twice as powerful as earlier versions. “Don’t be surprised if you see it accelerate much more than Ariane 62, the version we have already launched five times,” he said. “It delivers significantly more power, allowing much heavier payloads to be sent into space.” Ariane 6 is a joint effort by 13 European Space Agency member states. “We are working with more than 600 subcontractors,” Gilibert said. “Everything comes together at two main sites Bremen in Germany for the upper stage, and Les Mureaux in France for the lower, or main stage of the launcher.” All parts have now been shipped across the Atlantic for final assembly. Standing 62 meters tall, the rocket is as high as a 20-story building. “We check everything until the very last minute, and then we fly,” Gilibert said. The flight will last nearly one hour and 50 minutes, with satellites released in pairs. The mission aims to rival SpaceX’s Starlink network. The Vulcain 2.1 engine ignites first at liftoff. “For a few seconds, we verify that it is functioning properly,” said Emmanuel Viallon, head of the Vernon site. “Once we are fully confident it will operate correctly for the eight minutes that follow, we ignite the solid boosters and the rocket lifts off.” Elon Musk’s SpaceX to build self-sustaining Moon city Experts say Ariane 64 is key to Europe’s independent access to space. “It’s an additional level of performance,” said Hermann Ludwig Moeller of the European Space Policy Institute, calling the launch an important test for the program. Project manager Arnaud Demay said ,ArianeGroup is also looking ahead to reusable technology. He admitted the emotional impact of each launch. “We do it so rarely, and it’s so majestic when it takes off that little touch of magic inevitably overwhelms me with emotion every time,” he said.

SpaceX founder Elon Musk said on Sunday that the company is prioritizing plans to build a self-sustaining city on the Moon before attempting a permanent settlement on Mars. Musk explained that a lunar city is faster and more practical than going directly to Mars. The Moon is closer to Earth, with trips taking about two days, compared to six months for Mars. Frequent launch opportunities and easier logistics make the Moon a strategic first step for testing technologies and life-support systems. The Moon city will serve as a base for human habitation, scientific research, and resource extraction, supporting long-term deep-space exploration. NASA’s Artemis program also aligns with this vision, planning sustained lunar missions in the coming years. Musk emphasized that SpaceX’s broader mission remains unchanged: to expand human life beyond Earth. While the Moon is the immediate focus, work on a Mars city could begin in five to seven years, running alongside lunar settlement efforts. Experts say a Moon-first approach allows engineers to develop construction technologies, transportation networks, and survival systems closer to Earth, where missions are easier to support. SpaceX is reportedly considering an initial public offering (IPO) in mid-June, potentially raising $50 billion and valuing the company around $1.5 trillion. A successful lunar city could become humanity’s first permanent settlement beyond Earth and a proving ground for Mars colonization.   With inputs from ‘India Today’

As Nasa prepares for its Artemis programme to return humans to the Moon, space agencies say future astronauts will face extreme physical, psychological and social challenges far beyond those experienced during earlier space missions. Nasa astronaut Victor Glover, who will pilot the Artemis II mission, says space travel is far more demanding than many people realise. The mission will take the Orion spacecraft farther than any crewed mission in history, with four astronauts confined to a small capsule for about 10 days without any possibility of resupply. Glover said even basic resources such as food and water must be carefully managed, while privacy will be almost non existent. Routine activities, including using the hygiene compartment, can disrupt the entire crew due to noise in the tight living space. He said such conditions require extensive psychological preparation, not just technical skill. Artemis II marks the first stage of humanity’s long term return to the Moon. Future missions plan to land astronauts near the Moon’s South Pole and establish a base where crews may live for months. Astronauts will operate days away from Earth in an airless, dusty environment with extreme temperatures, high radiation levels and lunar nights lasting up to two weeks. Experts say selecting the right astronauts is crucial. According to Sergi Vaquer Araujo of the European Space Agency, the ideal candidate is not exceptional in just one area but competent across many domains, including physical health, mental resilience and teamwork. While early astronauts were chosen mainly for peak physical fitness and competitive instincts, modern missions place greater emphasis on cooperation and emotional intelligence. ESA’s recent astronaut selection process focused heavily on group tasks, rewarding candidates who prioritised team success over individual achievement. Certain medical conditions still disqualify candidates, including chronic lung disease, heart irregularities or colour blindness. Space agencies say this is necessary because advanced medical treatment is not available during deep space missions. To better understand how people cope with long term isolation, scientists study environments on Earth that resemble space conditions. British surgeon Nina Purvis recently spent a winter at the Concordia research station in Antarctica, living with 12 others in complete isolation for several months. She said adaptability, calmness under pressure and being pleasant to work with are essential traits. Researchers at Concordia also examined boredom and mental wellbeing, finding that structured group activities such as yoga, art and mindfulness exercises improved morale and social cohesion. Scientists believe similar practices will become part of daily routines for future Moon crews. Private initiatives are also contributing to lunar living research. During the Covid pandemic, two European architects lived for 60 days in a prototype Moon habitat in northern Greenland. The compact structure was designed to simulate confinement while providing personal space and artificial lighting to maintain healthy sleep cycles. The experiment later led to a company specialising in designing space habitats for agencies and private firms. One of the designers said living in extreme conditions helped identify small daily frustrations that could be solved through better design. Despite years of preparation, Glover admits that the psychological impact of travelling so far from Earth remains uncertain. He said the true test of readiness will only come after the mission is complete. As space agencies move closer to sustained human presence on the Moon, experts agree that success will depend as much on mental strength, cooperation and adaptability as on rockets and technology.   With inputs from BBC

Chinese researchers have identified a central brain network responsible for Parkinson’s disease, with early clinical trials showing encouraging results from treatments that directly target this network. The discovery was made by a team led by Professor Liu Hesheng of Changping Laboratory in Beijing and was published on Thursday in the journal Nature. According to the China Parkinson’s Disease Report 2025, more than 5 million people in China are living with Parkinson’s disease, accounting for about 40 percent of patients worldwide. The condition is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer’s disease. Parkinson’s has long been viewed mainly as a movement disorder, marked by symptoms such as tremors, slowed movement and difficulty walking. However, patients also suffer from a range of non-motor problems, including low blood pressure, sleep disorders and digestive issues, which have been harder to explain and treat. In a study involving more than 800 patients, the researchers found that Parkinson’s affects a brain system known as the somato-cognitive action network, or SCAN. Located in the cerebral cortex, this network connects key regions involved in movement control, including the basal ganglia and thalamus, which are common targets in existing treatments. The study revealed that connections between SCAN and these regions are abnormally strengthened in Parkinson’s patients. Researchers said understanding this abnormal connectivity is critical, as it points to new treatment approaches that could address both motor and non-motor symptoms at their root. Building on this and earlier work, Liu’s team helped develop a precision brain circuit stimulator through Galaxy Brain Scientific Inc., capable of targeting affected brain areas with millimeter-level accuracy. The technology is based on Personalized Brain Functional Sectors, which map individual brain functions in greater detail and are combined with real-time navigation for precise magnetic stimulation. Because functional brain regions vary significantly from person to person, the new approach allows doctors to locate Parkinson’s-affected areas far more quickly. Under traditional methods, this process took 15 to 30 minutes, while the new system can identify targets in less than a second, said Deng Wei, CEO of Galaxy Brain Scientific Inc. Once the target is identified, the device uses an external magnetic field to stimulate neural cells through transcranial magnetic stimulation, or TMS, helping improve brain function without invasive surgery. Read More: NASA detects ammonia compounds on Jupiter’s moon Europa Clinical trials showed that after two weeks of treatment, patients whose SCAN network was targeted achieved an effectiveness rate of 55.5 percent, compared with 22.2 percent in a control group treated in nearby brain regions. The results support the potential of individualized, non-invasive and highly targeted treatments for Parkinson’s patients in China and other countries. Since 2025, five hospitals across China, including in Beijing, Henan, Guangdong, Zhejiang and Sichuan, have begun using the new equipment. The cost is also significantly lower than surgery. While brain operations can cost around 200,000 yuan, each TMS session costs less than 200 yuan. A treatment course typically lasts two to three weeks and is repeated every six months, with long-term use potentially slowing disease progression. Hu Ying, 64, was among the first patients to receive the treatment in 2022. Diagnosed in 2018, her condition rapidly worsened, leaving her with frequent falls, swallowing difficulties and loss of facial expression. As surgery was not suitable and medication became less effective, she opted for the new therapy. After one 18-day course, Hu was able to walk independently again, and her speech and swallowing improved markedly. Nearly four years of continued treatment have even allowed her to sing karaoke with friends. Her husband, Jiang Ke, said the therapy has transformed their lives, enabling them to travel across China and even visit Europe. “We never imagined we could still do this,” he said.

Scientists at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) have made major advances in scalable quantum networks, bringing the technology closer to real-world use. Their findings have been published in Nature and Science. Quantum information science aims to create highly efficient and ultra-secure networks, which require the long-distance distribution of quantum entanglement – a phenomenon where particles share a unique connection. This entanglement is vital for secure quantum communication and linking future quantum computers. A major hurdle has been signal loss in optical fibers, where transmission efficiency drops sharply with distance, making large-scale networks difficult to implement. To overcome this, the USTC team focused on a “quantum repeater,” which divides a long communication link into shorter segments, establishes entanglement in each, and then connects them. The main challenge has been that quantum entanglement is usually too short-lived to last long enough to connect the segments, preventing repeaters from functioning effectively. NASA’s Juno data shows Jupiter smaller and flatter than earlier estimates The researchers solved this problem by developing a long-lived trapped-ion quantum memory, a highly efficient ion-photon interface, and a high-fidelity experimental protocol. These innovations allowed entanglement to persist long enough to link segments successfully. USTC said this is the first demonstration of a scalable building block for a quantum repeater, a critical step toward long-distance quantum networks. In a related experiment, the team used similar technology to create high-fidelity entanglement between two distant rubidium atoms. Using this, they implemented device-independent quantum key distribution (DI-QKD) over city-scale fiber networks for the first time. DI-QKD is considered the most secure form of communication, as its security is ensured by the principles of quantum physics, regardless of potential device flaws. The team successfully carried out DI-QKD over 11 kilometers of fiber, extending the practical distance about 3,000 times beyond previous records. They also demonstrated the feasibility of secure key generation over 100 kilometers, surpassing the previous international record by more than 100 times. The researchers described these achievements as landmark milestones for China in quantum communication, signaling that fiber-based quantum networks are moving from theory toward practical application.

New findings from NASA’s Juno mission suggest that Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system, is slightly smaller and more flattened than scientists previously believed. According to NASA, researchers analysed radio occultation data collected during 13 close flybys of the gas giant, while also factoring in the impact of Jupiter’s powerful zonal winds. The study, published in the journal Nature Astronomy, found that Jupiter is around 8 kilometres narrower at the equator and about 24 kilometres flatter at the poles than earlier measurements indicated. NASA explained that radio occultation allows scientists to peer through Jupiter’s thick and opaque cloud layers to gain insights into its internal structure. During these experiments, Juno sends radio signals to Earth-based receivers in NASA’s Deep Space Network. As the signals travel through Jupiter’s ionosphere, atmospheric gases bend and slow them. NASA postpones crewed moon mission to March after hydrogen leaks By analysing subtle changes in the frequency of these signals, scientists can calculate key atmospheric properties, including temperature, pressure and electron density at various depths within the planet’s atmosphere. The agency said that determining Jupiter’s precise size and shape is crucial because the planet serves as an important reference point for studying giant exoplanets beyond the solar system. A more accurate model of Jupiter will help astronomers better interpret observations of distant planets as they transit their host stars.

NASA has delayed its much-anticipated crewed mission around the moon until at least March after hydrogen fuel leaks disrupted a key fueling test of its new mega rocket. The problem surfaced during a full dress rehearsal at Kennedy Space Center, forcing officials to stop the countdown. Similar hydrogen leaks had also delayed the debut of the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket three years ago. Hydrogen, while efficient, is highly flammable and difficult to manage. “This issue caught us by surprise,” said John Honeycutt, NASA’s SLS program manager, speaking hours after Monday’s test was halted. Before the leaks, NASA had hoped to launch as early as this weekend, marking humanity’s first return to the moon since 1972. According to NASA, the delay of about a month will give engineers time to run another fueling test before committing the four-member crew three Americans and one Canadian to the lunar flyby mission. It remains unclear when the next rehearsal will take place. Officials said any damaged seals or parts can likely be fixed at the launch pad. Moving the rocket back to the Vehicle Assembly Building would cause a much longer delay. The leaks appeared early during the loading of super-cold liquid hydrogen and reappeared later, eventually stopping the countdown at five minutes. Controllers aimed to reach the final 30 seconds, but hydrogen levels rose above safety limits. NASA teams tried several fixes, including pausing the fuel flow to warm the area and adjusting hydrogen flow rates methods that helped during the uncrewed SLS launch in 2022. This time, however, the leaks persisted. NASA research plane makes emergency landing in Texas after gear failure With the launch now pushed to at least March 6, mission commander Reid Wiseman and his crewmates have been cleared to exit quarantine in Houston. They will reenter quarantine two weeks before the next launch attempt. Wiseman said he was proud of the launch team’s work despite the challenges. NASA officials said cold weather did not cause the leaks. Heaters kept the Orion capsule warm, while protective systems safeguarded the rocket. Amit Kshatriya, NASA’s associate administrator, reminded reporters that the SLS is still an experimental vehicle and that long gaps between tests add to the challenge. The nearly 10-day mission will send astronauts around the moon to test life-support and other critical systems. They will not land or enter lunar orbit. The Artemis program ultimately aims to return astronauts to the lunar surface this time near the moon’s south pole—and support longer stays in the years ahead.

An artificial intelligence model developed by Google’s DeepMind could significantly advance scientists’ understanding of human DNA and accelerate research into genetic diseases, cancer and new medicines, researchers say. The model, known as AlphaGenome, is designed to interpret the human genome, often described as the complete biological blueprint for building and operating the human body. Scientists believe it could help explain why small genetic differences increase the risk of conditions such as high blood pressure, obesity, dementia and certain cancers. AlphaGenome analyses DNA at an unprecedented scale, examining up to one million genetic “letters” at a time. Human DNA consists of about three billion such letters, represented by A, C, G and T. Only around 2% of this code forms genes that directly produce proteins, while the remaining 98%, known as the “dark genome,” plays a crucial regulatory role but remains poorly understood. Researchers say AlphaGenome can help illuminate this dark genome by predicting how non-gene regions influence gene activity, including when genes are switched on or off and how they are spliced to produce different proteins. Crucially, the model can also forecast the biological impact of altering even a single letter in the DNA code. DeepMind researcher Natasha Latysheva said the tool is intended to help scientists understand how functional elements of the genome work, potentially speeding up discoveries in basic biology and medicine. She added that AlphaGenome could help identify disease-causing mutations, guide drug target discovery and support the development of new therapies, including in synthetic biology and gene therapy. The model was described in the journal Nature and released last year for non-commercial use. Since then, about 3,000 scientists worldwide have used it in their research. At the University of Exeter, researchers are applying AlphaGenome to study genetic variants linked to obesity and diabetes. While large population studies have identified such variants, many are located in the dark genome, making their biological role difficult to interpret. Scientists say the AI model allows them to rapidly predict the effects of these variants and prioritise which ones to test in laboratories. AlphaGenome is also being used in cancer research to distinguish between mutations that drive tumour growth and those that are incidental. Experts describe this capability as a major step forward in genomic AI. Dr Robert Goldstone of the Francis Crick Institute called the model a major milestone, highlighting its ability to predict gene behaviour directly from DNA sequences. Researchers at the Wellcome Sanger Institute said large-scale testing has shown strong performance, although they stressed the system still needs refinement. Scientists note that AlphaGenome is less accurate at predicting long-range gene regulation and variations across different tissues, areas that DeepMind aims to improve. Despite these limitations, experts say the model represents a major leap in combining genomics, biomedical research and artificial intelligence. DeepMind, whose team won the 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for its earlier AlphaFold protein-structure model, said AlphaGenome marks the beginning of a new phase in scientific discovery driven by AI-enabled breakthroughs.   With inputs from BBC

NASA scientists have discovered ammonia-bearing compounds on the surface of Jupiter’s icy moon Europa, shedding new light on the moon’s subsurface ocean, according to a recent analysis of decades-old space data. The breakthrough comes from a re-examination of information collected by NASA’s Galileo spacecraft, which orbited Jupiter from 1989 until 2003. Researchers created a composite image of a 400-kilometre-wide area on Europa using the spacecraft’s solid-state imaging camera, revealing dark, crossing bands on the moon’s surface that indicate cracks in the ice. Data from Galileo’s Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) was overlaid on the image. Red pixels mark areas where ammonia compounds were detected, while purple pixels show regions without such compounds. The NIMS data was collected during Galileo’s 11th orbit of Jupiter in 1997. Scientists suggest that the ammonia-rich compounds near these fractures could have been transported by cryovolcanic activity, potentially bringing liquid water from Europa’s subsurface ocean to the surface. The discovery provides fresh insights into the moon’s geological activity and its potential to host conditions favourable for life beneath the ice, NASA reported.   With inputs from NDTV