Mounting living costs, rising fuel prices, concerns over education and public services, and a worsening housing crisis have triggered widespread protests across Europe, with demonstrations in several countries escalating into clashes, arrests and property damage.
For weeks, demonstrators have taken to the streets in major cities in France, Italy and Albania, while housing activists in Spain and Portugal have established makeshift tent camps to protest soaring rents and the growing difficulty of finding affordable accommodation.
María Silvestre, a sociology professor at Spain's University of Deusto, said many young Europeans were experiencing deep uncertainty and a sense of losing control over their lives. When several grievances converge, she said, a single incident can ignite widespread public anger and bring people onto the streets.
The unrest comes as major European Union economies, including France, Italy and Spain, approach crucial elections, while far-right parties continue to gain ground in Germany and elsewhere. Europe is also navigating a critical phase in its support for Ukraine amid US President Donald Trump's engagement with Russian President Vladimir Putin and growing concerns over alleged sabotage, cyberattacks and arson incidents in NATO countries.
Right-wing politicians have sought to use the unrest to advance their political arguments. Although demonstrations in France have drawn people with varied grievances, Trump blamed immigrants for the destruction and called for an immediate closure of the country's borders in a post on his Truth Social platform on Monday.
French authorities and police, however, have not attributed the violence to immigrants. While many demonstrators are frustrated young people, masked individuals dressed in black have also been accused of contributing to the unrest.
School funding and public services spark anger in France
France, which has a long history of street protests, has seen high school students organise demonstrations and blockades for more than three weeks. They are demanding additional funding and resources for schools they say are understaffed and deteriorating, particularly in disadvantaged areas.
The movement expanded after the CGT labour union and other activists joined the campaign, bringing broader concerns about living expenses and declining public services into the protests.
Although hundreds of thousands participated in peaceful marches, violence over the weekend resulted in around 2,400 arrests and widespread damage in several cities, including Paris, Marseille, Lyon and Bordeaux.
In Limoges, a fire engulfed the 19th-century city hall, nearly destroying the historic building. Several schools were also set ablaze, while clashes involving firebombs and police tear gas left hundreds injured.
President Emmanuel Macron condemned the violence, accusing far-left activists of attempting to destabilise the country by attacking public buildings and police officers.
In a televised address on Sunday, Macron said those responsible for looting would have to compensate for the damage, while those attempting to undermine the republic would face accountability.
In Spain, meanwhile, primary and secondary schoolteachers began an indefinite strike in Madrid last week, seeking better salaries and working conditions. Similar walkouts have taken place in other parts of the country this year.
Housing costs put growing pressure on young people
Housing affordability has become a major source of public frustration in Spain and Portugal.
In Madrid's central Puerta del Sol square, protesters have maintained tent camps for weeks to highlight rising rents and the difficulty of securing affordable housing. The demonstrations gained momentum following the eviction of 87-year-old María del Carmen Abascal, who later died in hospital. Similar encampments subsequently appeared in other Spanish cities.
Public pressure prompted Spain's Socialist-led government to propose affordable housing measures, but the plans failed to secure parliamentary backing. Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez subsequently called an early election for November, while a general strike was also announced for the same month — the first in 14 years.
Housing demonstrations have also spread to Lisbon and Porto in Portugal, as well as Barcelona, where overtourism has intensified concerns about housing availability and affordability.
According to an analysis by Spanish business newspaper Expansión, the country's minimum monthly wage stands at 1,221 euros, while the average rent for an 80-square-metre apartment is about 1,130 euros.
Diana Manzanares, a 20-year-old waitress participating in the Madrid protest camp, said rent consumed most of her earnings and that her roommate faced similar financial difficulties.
She said the struggle to afford housing had become a common reality for many people living in the city.
Inflation and demands for better services drive protests in Italy
In Italy, a movement known as “Italia in Piazza,” or Italy in the Streets, has mobilised thousands of people demanding improved employment opportunities, healthcare, education, housing access and higher wages.
Official figures showed that inflation in Italy climbed to 4.2 percent in September, exceeding the eurozone rate of 3.8 percent.
Peaceful demonstrations were followed by violent confrontations in Turin and Bologna, as well as Milan, the country's financial and fashion hub. Masked protesters clashed with police, looted shops and set property ablaze.
Milan police reported that 271 people were arrested, most of them minors, while 14 security personnel were injured during two days of unrest.
A newly formed group calling itself the “Oct. 17 Movement” has since announced plans for what it describes as a sustained campaign of demonstrations every Saturday at 3 pm in cities across Italy.
Students join anti-corruption protests in Albania
In Albania, anti-government demonstrations have continued for more than a week in the capital, Tirana, with tensions rising after high school and university students joined the broader “Flamingo” movement demanding the resignation of Socialist Prime Minister Edi Rama.
Rama has accused the protesters of being radicalised by antifa, a loose label for far-left militant groups. Trump has designated the movement a terrorist organisation in the United States.
The campaign takes its name from the natural habitat of flamingos in an area where Rama's government approved a major luxury tourism development linked to Jared Kushner, Trump's son-in-law.
Fighting corruption is a central demand of the protesters, who are also calling for stronger protections for healthcare, education and public pensions, according to the movement's website.
Student-led anti-corruption campaign continues in Serbia
In neighbouring Serbia, university students who have spearheaded mass anti-corruption demonstrations for nearly two years are challenging an effort by former populist leader Aleksandar Vucic to return to power.
Vucic, a former president, is seeking to become prime minister following the country's parliamentary election scheduled for Oct. 25.
The youth-backed Students' List party is believed to be running closely against Vucic's party, leaving the outcome uncertain and raising concerns about possible violence.
The protests across Europe reflect growing public dissatisfaction with living standards, government accountability and access to essential services, with young people playing a prominent role in mobilising opposition across the continent.